تأملی در امکان‌سنجی اعمال صلاحیت دیوان بین‌المللی کیفری نسبت به جرایم زیست‌محیطی

نوع مقاله : مقاله پژوهشی

نویسندگان

1 استادیار گروه حقوق عمومی و بین‌الملل دانشکده حقوق و علوم سیاسی دانشگاه علامه طباطبائی

2 دانشجوی دکتری حقوق بین‌الملل دانشگاه علامه طباطبائی

3 دانش‌آموخته دکتری تخصصی رشته حقوق بین‌الملل دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی

چکیده

دیوان بین‌المللی کیفری به موجب اساسنامه خود صلاحیت موضوعی مشخصی نسبت به چهار جنایت اصلی بین­المللی دارد. این جنایات، مهم‌ترین جنایاتی هستند که نگرانی عمدة جامعة جهانی می­باشند. جرایم زیست­محیطی در میان این چهار عنوان وجود ندارد. بنابراین پرسش این مقاله این است که آیا دیوان بین‌المللی کیفری می­تواند به اعمال صلاحیت نسبت به جرایم زیست­محیطی بپردازد. جرایم زیست­محیطی به‌طور کلی از شرایط عمومی که لازمة جنایات تحت صلاحیت دیوان است، مانند شدید بودن و بین­المللی بودن، برخوردارند و از این‌رو در قالب اساسنامه نیز می­توانند تحت بررسی قرار گیرند. هرچند، در نظم حقوقی بین­المللی فعلی، امید چندانی به اصلاح اساسنامه و درج عنوان مجرمانة جدیدی تحت نام جنایت زیست­محیطی وجود ندارد، اما مقررات فعلی اساسنامه به قدر کفایت از گنجایش و ظرفیت لازم برای شمول بر جرایم زیست­محیطی تحت هر یک از سه عنوان ژنوسید، جنایات جنگی و بخصوص، جنایت علیه بشریت برخوردار است.

کلیدواژه‌ها


عنوان مقاله [English]

A Reflection on the Feasibility of Applying the International Criminal Court’s Jurisdiction over Environmental Crimes

نویسندگان [English]

  • Heybatollah Najandi manesh 1
  • S. Ali Hosseiniazad 2
  • Majid Zahmatkesh 3
1 Assistant Professor of Allameh Tabataba'i University
2 Ph.D student in International Law at Allameh Tabataba'i University
3 PhD student in International Law, Islamic Azad University
چکیده [English]

International Criminal Court based on its statute has a specific subject-matter jurisdiction over the four core international crimes; these are the most serious crimes of concern to the international community as a whole. The environmental crimes are not among those four titles. The main question in this article is whether ICC is able to apply jurisdiction over the environmental crimes. Environmental crimes have common criteria of crimes under ICC’s jurisdiction such as gravity and international nature. So, those crimes may be considered by ICC under the Rome Statute. Although, in the current legal order there is no hope of amendment to the statute and inclusion of new crime of ecocide in subject-matter jurisdiction. Current system of statute has enough capability and capacity to cover environmental crimes under any crime of genocide, war crimes and specially, crimes against humanity.
 

کلیدواژه‌ها [English]

  • Environmental crimes
  • International Criminal Court
  • International crime
  • Rome statute
  • Subject-matter jurisdiction
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    برنامه محیط زیست ملل متحد (1393)، حمایت از محیط زیست در مخاصمات مسلحانه از منظر حقوق بین­الملل، ترجمه سیدعلی حسینی آزاد و مهرداد محمدی، تهران: مؤسسه­ی مطالعات و پژوهش­های حقوقی شهردانش.

    جعفری، امین و اصغر احمدی (1398)، «جبران خسارات جرائم زیست‌محیطی در حقوق بین‌الملل و حقوق ایران»، فصلنامۀ مطالعات حقوق عمومی، دورۀ 94، شمارۀ 2، ص 633-613.

    نجفی اسفاد، مرتضی و عسکر جلالیان (1391)، «ضرورت تأسیس دادگاه بین­الملل محیط زیست جهت حمایت کیفری و حقوقی از محیط زیست در مقابل خسارات وارده در جنگ 22 روزه غزه»، فصلنامه راهبرد، شماره 63، ص  241-205.

    1. Books

    Bassiouni, M. Cherif (2008), International Criminal Law; Sources, Subjects, and Contents, Volume I, Leiden and Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers and VSP.

    Cryer, Robert and others (2007), An Introduction to International criminal law and procedures, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Einarsen, Terje (2012), The Concept of Universal Crimes in International Law, Torkel Opsahl Academic EPublisher.

    Freeland, Steven R. (2015), Addressing the Intentional Destruction of the Environment during Warfare under the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Cambridge: Intersentia.

    Hayman, Gavin and Duncan Brack (2002), International Environmental Crimes; the Nature and Control of Environmental Black Markets, London: Royal Institute of International Affairs.

    Henckaerts, Jean-Marie and Louise Doswald-Beck (2009), Customary International Humanitarian Law, Volume I, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Higgins, Polly (2015), Eradicating ecocide: exposing the corporate and political practices destroying the planet and proposing the laws needed to eradicate ecocide, London: Shepheard-Walwyn Publisher.

    Quigley, John B (2006), The Genocide Convention; an International Law Analysis, Hampshire: Ashgate Publishing Limited.

    Sassoli, Marco, Antoine A. Bouvier and Anne Quintin. (n.d.). How Does Law Protect in War?; Cases, Documents and Teaching Materials on Contemporary Practice in International Humanitarian Law, Volume I, (n.p.), Geneva: ICRC.

    Schabas, William A. (2009), Genocide in International Law; The Crime of Crimes, 2nd edition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    White, Rob (2007), Transnational Environmental Crime; Toward an eco-global criminology, London and New York: Routledge.

     

    1. Articles

    Anton, Donald. K. (2016), “Adding a green focus: The Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court highlights the ‘environment’ in case selection and prioritization”, Griffith Law School Research Paper, No. 17-03, pp. 1-13.

    Arnold, Roberta and Stefan Wehrenberg. (2015), “Commentary on Article 8 (War Crimes)”, In: Otto Triffterer and Kai Ambos, the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court; A Commentary, C.H.Beck.Hart.Nomos, pp. 375-382.

    Bailey, Thomas A. (1935), “The North Pacific Sealing Convention of 1911”, Pacific Historical Review, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 1-14.

    Bassiouni, M. Cherif (2008), “International Crimes: The Ratione Materiae of International Criminal Law”, in: M. Cherif Bassiouni (ed), International Criminal Law; Sources, Subjects, and Contents, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, and VSP, pp. 129-203.

    Brenna, Lorenzo (2016), “Environmental destruction is now a crime against humanity”, Translated by Camilla Soldati, 03 OCT 2016, an Online article on Lifegate, available at: https://www.lifegate.com/people/news/environmental-destruction-crime-against-humanity-icc (last visited on: 02/05/2019)

    Cryer, Robert (2008), “The Doctrinal Foundations of International Criminalization”, In: M. Cherif Bassiouni (ed), International Criminal Law; Sources, Subjects, and Contents, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, and VSP, pp. 107-128.

    Durney, Jessica (2018), “Crafting a Standard: Environmental Crimes as Crimes Against Humanity Under the International Criminal Court”, Hastings Environmental Law Journal, Vol. 24, No. 2, pp. 413-430

    Freeland, Steven (2005), “Human Rights, the Environment and Conflict: Addressing Crimes against the Environment”, International Journal on Human Rights, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 112-139.

    Hall, Christopher K. and Carsten Stahn (2015), “Commentary on article 7 (Crime against Humanity)”, In: Otto Triffterer and Kai Ambos (eds), the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court; A Commentary, C.H.Beck.Hart.Nomos, pp. 178-206.

    Heller, Kevin J. (2017), “What Is an International Crime? (A Revisionist History)”, Harvard International Law Journal, Vol. 58, No. 2, pp. 1-71.

    Kotter, Richard (2014), “Eradicating ecocide: exposing the corporate and political practices destroying the planet and proposing the laws needed to eradicate ecocide”, International Journal of Environmental Studies, Vol. 71:2, pp. 228-233.

    Lehman, Alessandra and others (2017), “ICC to focus on environmental crimes: a landmark move for International Environmental Law”, Energy and Environment Expert Guides, pp. 59-60.

    McCaffrey, Stephen C. (2008), “Criminalization of Environmental Protection”, in: M. Cherif Bassiouni (ed), International Criminal Law; Sources, Subjects, and Contents, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, and VSP, pp. 1013-1035.

    Mistura, Alessandra (2018), “Is There Space for Environmental Crimes under International Criminal Law? The Impact of the Office of the Prosecutor Policy Paper on Case Selection and Prioritization on the Current Legal Framework”, Columbia Journal of Environmental Law, Vol. 43.1, pp. 181-226.

    Ortega, Martin C. (1997), “the ILC Adopts the Draft Code of Crimes Against the Peace and Security of Mankind”, Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law, Vol. 1, pp. 283-326.

    Pathak, Puneet (2016), “International Environmental Crime: A Growing Concern of International Environmental Governance”, US-China L. Rev., Vol. 13, pp. 382-398.

    Rauxloh, Regina (2011), “The Role of International Criminal Law in Environmental Protection”, in: Francis N. Botchway (ed), Natural resource investment and Africa’s development; New Horizons in Environmental and Energy Law series, Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, pp. 423-461.

    Schloenhardt, Andreas (2005), “Transnational Organized Crime and the International Criminal Court; Developments and Debates”, The University of Queensland Law Journal, Vol. 24, pp. 93-122.

    Smith, Lorraine, (2010), “What did the ICC Review Conference achieve?”, Equality of Arms Review, Vol. 2, Issue. 2, pp. 1-10.

    Smith, Tara. (2012), “Creating a Framework for the Prosecution of Environmental Crimes in International Criminal Law”, in: William A. Schabas, and others (eds.), The Ashgate Research Companion to International Criminal Law: Critical Perspectives, Ashgate Publishers, pp. 45-62.

    Smith, Tara (2016), “Why the International Criminal Court is Right to Focus on the Environment”, an online article available at: http://theconversation.com/why-the-international-criminal-court-is-right-to-focus-on-the-environment-65920

     

    1. Dissertation

    Eifan, Meshari K. (2007), “Head of State Criminal Responsibility for Environmental War Crimes: Case Study: The Arabian Gulf Armed Conflict 1990-1991”, (S.J.D. dissertation, Pace University School of Law).

     

    1. Case law

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    Kupresˇkic´ ICTY T. Ch. II 14.1.2000

    Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. Belgium et al.), Verbatim Record, 10 May 1999

    Prosecutor v. Delalic’ and others. ICTY, Case No.: IT-96-21-T, 16 November 1998, paras. 442 and 544

    Prosecutor v. Furundžija, Case No. IT-95-17/1, Judgment, para. 156 (Dec. 10, 1998).

    Prosecutor v. Kristic’, IT-98-33-T, 2 August 2001, para. 513; Prosecutor v. Akayesu, ICTR-96-4-T, 2 September 1998

    The Prosecutor v. Germain Katanga and Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui, No. ICC-01/04-01/07, 30 September 2008,

    The Prosecutor v. Uhuru Muigai Kenyatta and Mohammed Hussein Ali, No. ICC-01/09-02/11, 23 January 2012

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    1. Instruments

    1953 Committee on International Criminal Jurisdiction, Revised Draft Statute for an International Criminal Court, Basic Documents of the United Nations 100, (ed. by Sohn, 1956)

    Draft Statute for an International Criminal Court with Commentaries, Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1994, vol. II(2)

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    International Criminal Court, Office of the Prosecutor, Policy Paper on Preliminary Examinations, November 2013

    International Criminal Court. Office of the Prosecutor, Policy Paper on Case Selection and Prioritization, 15 September 2016

    INTERPOL, ENVIRONMENTAL CRIME PROGRAMME: STRATEGIC PLAN 4 (2009–2010)

    Stockholm Declaration on the Human Environment, adopted by the UN Conference on the Human Environment at Stockholm, 16 June 1972, Section I of Report of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, UN Doc. A/ CONF.48/14 and Corr.1 (1972)

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    UNSC,S/RES/2121 (2013)

    UNSC, S/RES/2134 (2014)

    UNSC, S/RES/2136 (2014)

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    Guidelines for Military Manuals and Instructions on the Protection of the Environment in Times of Armed Conflict, 30-04-1996 Article, International Review of the Red Cross, No. 311

     

    1. International Reports

    Nellemann, C. and others, (2016), The Rise of Environ mental Crime; A Growing Threat to Natural Resources Peace, Development and Security. A UNEPINTERPOL Rapid Response Assessment.

    Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of Its Forty-Third Session, in; Yearbooks of the International Law Commission, 1991, Vol. II, part, 2.

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    Report of the Working Group on the Review Conference - Eighth session, ICC-ASP/8/20 Volume I Annex II

    The International Meeting of Experts on the Use of Criminal Sanctions in the Protection of the Environment Internationally, Domestically, and Regionally met in Portland, Oregon, Mar. 19–23, 1994; Greater Use of Criminal Law in Enforcement in Environmental Protection Urged, BNA INT’L ENVTL. DAILY, May 16, 1994